Circuit Breakers : Principles & Operation

Fig 1 : A 2-pole miniature circuit breaker

All electric circuits needs a switching device and also a protective device. Switchgear is the general term covering a wide range of equipment connected with switching and protection. A circuit breaker is a switching and circuit interrupting device. A circuit breaker serves two purposes:

(i) Switching on and off during normal operation for maintenance etc.
(ii) Switching during abnormal conditions- short circuits, earthing etc. to protect the associated equipment.

What is a Circuit Breaker ?
A circuit breaker is an apparatus in electrical systems that has the capability to, in the shortest possible time, switch from being an ideal conductor to an ideal insulator and vice-versa.

Furthermore, the circuit breaker should be able to fulfill the following requirements:

1.  In the stationary closed position, conduct its rated current without producing impermissible heat rise in any of its components.

2.  In its stationary positions, open as well as closed, the circuit breaker must be able to withstand any type of overvoltages within its rating. 

3. The circuit breaker shall, at its rated voltage, be able to make and break any possible current within its rating, without becoming unsuitable for further operation.

In earlier times, oil and compressed air were typical insulating and extinguishing medium. Nowadays they are almost entirely replaced by SF6 gas for economical and practical reasons, and also due to increased demands for higher ratings.

The circuit breaker is a crucial component in the substation, where it is used for coupling of busbars, transformers, transmission lines, etc. The most important task of a circuit breaker is to interrupt fault currents and thus protect electric and electronic equipment. The interruption and the subsequent reconnection should be carried out in such a way that normal operation of the network is quickly restored, in order to maintain system stability. In addition to the protective function, the circuit breakers are also applied for intentional switching such as energizing and de-energizing of shunt reactors and capacitor banks. For maintenance or repair of electrical equipment and transmission lines, the circuit breakers, together with the disconnectors, earthing switches or disconnecting circuit breakers with built-in disconnecting function, will ensure personnel safety. So a circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

In short, a circuit breaker is a sort of automatic switch which can interrupt the fault currents. Two important parts of a circuit breaker that need consideration are:

(i) Arc extinction system and (ii) Relay for operation

Principles of arc extinction :

The current interruption process in a high-voltage circuit breaker is a complex matter due to simultaneous interaction of several phenomena. When the circuit breaker contacts separate, an electric arc will be established, and current will continue to flow through the arc. Interruption will take place at an instant when the alternating current reaches zero. When a circuit breaker is tripped in order to interrupt a short-circuit current, the contact parting can start anywhere in the current loop. After the contacts have parted mechanically, the current will flow between the contacts through an electric arc, which consists of a core of extremely hot gas with a temperature of 5,000 to 20,000 K. This column of gas is fully ionized (plasma) and has an electrical conductivity comparable to that of carbon. When the current approaches zero, the arc diameter will decrease, with the cross-section approximately proportional to the current. In the vicinity of zero passage of current, the gas has been cooled down to around 2,000 K and will no longer be ionized plasma, nor will it be electrically conducting.

 Two physical requirements (regimes) are involved:

Thermal regime : The hot arc channel has to be cooled down to a temperature low enough that it ceases to be electrically conducting.

Dielectric regime : After the arc extinction, the insulating medium between the contacts must withstand the rapidly-increasing recovery voltage. This recovery voltage has a transient component (transient recovery voltage, TRV) caused by the system when current is interrupted. If either of these two requirements is not met, the current will continue to flow for another half cycle, until the next current zero is reached. It is quite normal for a circuit breaker to interrupt the short-circuit current at the second or even third current zero after contact separation.

Arc Extinction Process :

Whenever a circuit carrying current is interrupted by a circuit breaker an arc is inevitably formed between the contacts which prolongs the current interrupting process for a duration ranging from 10 to 100 or more milliseconds. Since arc is produced in every circuit breakers, therefore suitable energy dissipating device must be incorporated in the design of circuit breaker. Unless carefully controlled, arc can lead to danger of fire or explosion. The arc consists of a column of ionized gas i.e. gas in which the molecules have lost one or more of their negative electrons, leaving positive ions. The negative electrons are attracted towards the positive contact and being light, more towards it very rapidly. The positive ions attracted towards the negative contact. Due to electron movement the current flows. The ionization process is accompanied by the emission of light and heat. Also some portion of power is dissipated as heat. The temperature of arc may be as high as 6000⁰ C. Two methods commonly used are:

(i) High resistance interruption :

In this the arc is controlled in such a way that its resistance is caused to increase rapidly, thereby reducing the current until it falls to a value that is insufficient to maintain the ionization process. The arc resistance may be increased by

(a) Arc lengthening
(b) Arc cooling
(c) Arc splitting

(ii) Low resistance interruption :

In this the arc resistance is kept low, in order to keep the arc energy to a minimum and use is made of a natural or artificial current zero when the arc extinguishes itself and is then prevented from re striking.

Protection of contacts :

During arcing mechanical as well as electrical erosion of contacts occurs. Therefore the resistance to erosion by arching is the important property of contact materials. In case of dc circuits the process of erosion is represented by loss of material from one contact and the deposition of part of this material on to the other contact. However, in case of ac circuits there is no marked direction of transfer, as either contact becomes successively positive and negative.

There are two distinct forms of protections which may be employed with the object of reducing the rate of erosion of contacts by arcing thereby prolonging their useful life.

(a) Arc dispersion :

In this the destructive effects of the arc are minimized, using one of the following methods:
1. Oil immersion of contacts
2. Multiple break contacts
3. De ionization of arc path
4. Magnetic blow out of arc
5. Blast principle using air, oil, gas or water.

(b) Arc prevention :

In this the occurrence or arc is prevented by reducing the current and voltage below the minimum arcing values or reducing its destructive effects as far as possible. The principle devices used to quench circuits of this kind are :
 
(i) Discharge resistance (ii) Rectifiers (iii) Condensers

Circuit Breakers : Selection Criteria

There are a few different criteria to consider when selecting a circuit breaker including voltage, frequency, interrupting capacity, continuous current rating, unusual operating conditions and product testing. This article will give a step by step overview on selecting an appropriate circuit breaker for your specific application.

a) Voltage Rating : The overall voltage rating is calculated by the highest voltage that can be applied across all end ports, the distribution type and how the circuit breaker is directly integrated into the system. It is important to select a circuit breaker with enough voltage capacity to meet the end application.

b) Frequency : Circuit breakers up to 600 amps can be applied to frequencies of 50-120 Hz. Higher than 120 Hz frequencies will end up with the breaker having to derate. During higher frequency projects, the eddy currents and iron losses causes greater heating within the thermal trip components thus requiring the breaker to be derated or specifically calibrated. The total quantity of deration depends on the ampere rating, frame size as well as the current frequency. A general rule of thumb is the higher the ampere rating in a specific frame size the greater the derating needed. All higher rated breakers over 600 amps contain a transformer-heated bimetal and are suitable for 60 Hz AC maximum. For 50 Hz AC minimum applications special calibration is generally available. Solid state trip breakers are pre-calibrated for 50 Hz or 60 Hz applications. If doing a diesel generator project the frequency will either be 50 Hz or 60 Hz. It is best to check ahead of time with an electrical contractor to make sure calibration measures are in place before moving forward with a 50 Hz project.

c) Maximum Interrupting Capacity : The interrupting rating is generally accepted as the highest amount of fault current the breaker can interrupt without causing system failure to itself. Determining the maximum amount of fault current supplied by a system can be calculated at any given time. The one infallible rule that must be followed when applying the correct circuit breaker is that the interrupting capacity of the breaker must be equal or greater than the amount of fault current that can be delivered at the point in the system where the breaker is applied. Failure to apply the correct amount of interrupting capacity will result in damage to the breaker.

d) Continuous Current Rating : In regards to continuous current rating, molded case circuit breakers are rated in amperes at a specific ambient temperature. This ampere rating is the continuous current the breaker will carry in the ambient temperature where it was calibrated. A general rule of thumb for circuit breaker manufactures is to calibrate their standard breakers at 104° F. Ampere rating for any standard application depends solely on the type of load and duty cycle. Ampere rating is governed by the National Electrical Code (NEC) and is the primary source for information about load cycles in the electrical contracting industry. For example lighting and feeder circuits usually require a circuit breaker rated in accordance with the conductor current carrying capacity. To find various standard breaker current ratings for different size conductors and the permissible loads consult NEC table 210.24.

e) Atypical Operating Conditions : When selecting a circuit breaker it is crucial to have in mind the end user location. Each breaker is different and some are better suited for more unforgiving environments. Below are a few scenarios to keep in mind when determining what circuit breaker to use:

• High Ambient Temperature: If standard thermal magnetic breakers are applied in temperatures exceeding 104° F, the breaker must be derated or recalibrated to the environment. For many years, all breakers were calibrated for 77° F which meant that all breakers above this temperature had to be derated. Realistically, most enclosures were around 104° F; a common special breaker was used for these types of situations. In the mid 1960s industry standards were changed to make all standard breakers be calibrated with 104° F temperature in mind.

• Corrosion and Moisture: In environments where moisture is constant a special moisture treatment is recommended for breakers. This treatment helps resist mold and/or fungus that can corrode the unit. In atmospheres where high humidity is prevalent the best solution is the usage of space heaters in the enclosure. If possible, breakers should be removed from corrosive areas. If this is not practical, specifically manufactured breakers that are resistant to corrosion are available.

• High Shock Probability: If a circuit breaker is going to be installed in an area where there is a high probability of mechanical shock a special anti-shock device should be installed. Anti-shock devices consist of an inertia counterweight over the center pole that holds the trip bar latched under normal shock conditions. This weight should be installed so that it does not prevent thermal or magnetic trip units from functioning on overload or short circuit scenarios. The United States Navy is the largest end user of high shock resistant breakers which are required on all combat vessels.

• Altitude: In areas where the altitude is over 6,000 feet, circuit breakers must be derated for current carrying ability, voltage and interrupting capacity. At altitude, the thinner air does not conduct heat away from the current carrying components as well as denser air found in lower altitudes. In addition to overheating, the thinner air also prevents the of building a dielectric charge fast enough to withstand the same voltage levels that occur at normal atmospheric pressure. Altitude issues can also derate most used generators and other power generation equipment. It is best to speak with a power generation professional before purchasing.

• Resting Position: For the most part, breakers can be mounted in any position, horizontally or vertically, without affecting the tripping mechanisms or interrupting capacity. In areas of high wind it is imperative to have the breaker in an enclosure (most units comes enclosed) on a surface that sways a bit with the wind. When a circuit breaker is attached to an inflexible surface there is a possibility of disrupting the circuit when exposed to high winds.

Instrument Transformers: CT and PT

 

Fig :1: (A) The current transformer is designed to connect in series with the line to transform the line current to the standard 5 amperes suitable for the meter or relay. The voltage transformer is designed to connect in parallel with the line to transform the line voltage to 115 or 120 volts suitable for the meter or relay. To keep the voltage at the meters and relays at a safe value, the secondary circuit must be grounded. (B) The polarity markers indicate the relative instantaneous directions of current in the windings. The polarity, or instantaneous direction of current, is of no significant difference for current-operated or voltage-operated devices. Correct operation of current-current, voltage-voltage, or current-voltage devices usually depends on the relative instantaneous directions.

Instrument Transformer :

The name instrument transformer (IT) is a general classification applied to current and voltage devices used to change currents and voltages from one magnitude to another or to perform an isolating function, that is, to isolate the utilization current or voltage from the supply voltage for safety to both the operator and the end device in use. Instrument transformers are designed specifically for use with electrical equipment falling into the broad category of devices commonly called instruments such as voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, watt-hour meters, protection relays, etc. Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform voltage or current from the high values in the transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utilized by low voltage metering devices. There are three primary applications for which ITs are used: metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes); protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes); and load survey (for economic management of industrial loads).

Depending on the requirements for those applications, the IT design and construction can be quite different. Generally, the metering ITs require high accuracy in the range of normal operating voltage and current. Protection ITs require linearity in a wide range of voltages and currents. During a disturbance, such as system fault or overvoltage transients, the output of the IT is used by a protective relay to initiate an appropriate action (open or close a breaker, reconfigure the system, etc.) to mitigate the disturbance and protect the rest of the power system. Instrument transformers are the most common and economic way to detect a disturbance. Typical output levels of instrument transformers are 1-5 amperes and 115-120 volts for CTs and VTs, respectively. There are several classes of accuracy for instrument transformers defined by the IEEE, CSA, IEC, and ANSI standards. Figure 1 shows how the polarity markers are used to keep the direction of current flow in the meters exactly the same, as if the primary circuit was carried through the meters. Grounding of the secondary circuit is most important, but in complicated three-phase connections, the best point to ground is not always easily determined.




Current Transformer (CT) :

These can be used to supply information for measuring power flows and the electrical inputs for the operation of protective relays associated with the transmission and distribution circuits or for power transformers. These current transformers have the primary winding connected in series with the conductor carrying the current to be measured or controlled. The secondary winding is thus insulated from the high voltage and can then be connected to low-voltage metering circuits. Current transformers are also used for street lighting circuits. Street lighting requires a constant current to prevent flickering lights and a current transformer is used to provide that constant current. In this case the current transformer utilizes a moving secondary coil to vary the output so that a constant current is obtained.



Potential Transformer (PT) :

Potential transformers, are also known as voltage transformers, are instrument transformers. They have a large number of secondary turns and a fewer number of primary turns. Potential transformers are used to increase the range of voltmeters in electrical substations and generating stations. The potential transformer converts voltages from high to low. It will take the thousands of volts behind power transmission systems and step the voltage down to something that meters can handle. These transformers work for single and three phase systems, and are attached at a point where it is convenient to measure the voltage. These transformers are required to provide accurate voltages for meters used for billing industrial customers or utility companies.

Frequently Asked Questions : Part 1

Author : Engr. Yousuf Ibrahim Khan (BSc. EEE, AIUB)

1. What is Electrical Safety ?

Ans : Electricity is a wonderful utility, but can be dangerous if not approached carefully. There are three basic hazards that cause injury or death – shock, arc-flash, and arc-blast. It is important to remember that even a small amount of current passing through the chest can cause death. Most deaths occurring for circuits of less than 600 volts happen when people are working on “hot,” energized equipment. So you need electrical safety.

2. What is a Shock ?

Ans : An electrical shock is a current that passes through the human body. Any electrical current flows through the path of least resistance towards ground; if an external voltage contacts a human body, e.g. by touching a live wire with the hand, the voltage will try to find a ground, and a current will develop that flows through the body’s nervous system or vascular system, and exit through the closest part of the body to ground (e.g., the other hand which may be touching a metal pipe.) Nerve shock disrupts the body’s normal electrical functions, and can stop the heart or the lungs, or both, causing severe injury or death.

3. Can you define Arc-Flash and Arc-Blast ?

Ans :   

Arc-Flash : An arc-flash is an extremely high temperature conductive mixture of plasma and gases, which causes very serious burns when it comes into contact with the body, and can ignite flammable clothing. Arc temperatures reach up to 35,000°F – which is 4X the temperature of the sun’s surface! 



Arc-Blast :  Arc-blast is a pressure wave resulting from arcing, which can carry molten metal fragments and plasma gasses at very high speeds and distances. This can not only carry very hot shrapnel to injure a person, but can actually be strong enough to destroy structures or knock workers off ladders.


4. What is Electric Arcing ?

Ans : An  electric  arc  takes  place  when  current  flows  through  the  air  or  through  insulation  between  two conductors at different potentials. Injury from arcs may be as a direct result of burning from the arc, in which case it is not unusual for the severity of the burn to be increased because molten metallic conductor particles may enter the burn. Arc burns are usually very severe and are often fatal.

5. How to avoid being shocked ?

Ans :  Preventing  yourself  from  receiving  an  electric shock  can  be  summed  up  in  three  words:  isolate, insulate and ground.

Isolate: Isolate yourself from the source of electric shock. Secure the power to equipment before you attempt  to work on  it. Be  sure  to  keep all electrical equipment covers, doors, and enclosures in  place   when   you   are   not   actually working on the equipment. If you must leave circuitry exposed, rope  off  the  area,  post appropriate signs, and warn your fellow workers of the danger. 

Insulate:  Make sure that the electrical tools and equipment you use are properly insulated. Use  only  approved  insulated  hand  and portable  electric  power  tools.  Check  power  and  extension  cords frequently for deterioration, cracks, or breaks. Breaks in the insulation cause many electrical accidents.

Ground:  Electric current always follows the path of least resistance. To  prevent  yourself  from being  the unintentional   path    to   ground, make sure that your equipment is well grounded. Well-grounded equipment will direct any stray electric current  to  ground,  thereby protecting  you  from  electric shock.  A good ground can also help protect your equipment from excessive voltage spikes or lightning. 

6. What is Earthing ?

Ans : The electric shock received by touching the metal parts of an appliance which might become live due to detective  insulation  is  because  of  the  current  flowing  through  the  human  body  caused  by  the  voltage between  the metal parts and earth. Effective earthing will keep  zero potential  in between such points and thus the accidents will be prevented. 

7. What is Fusing ?

Ans :  Fusing of electrical circuits is used to protect the wiring and equipment (NOT YOU). If you connect between active and neutral or active and ground you will get shocked. The fuse will happily deliver its rated current (1 - 50 A). More than enough to stop your heart or make you crispy. Fuses are also very important in preventing fires if a fault occurs.

8. Can you explain Mains Power ?

Ans :  Single phase power is delivered on an active and neutral pair of conductors. The neutral conductor is tied to ground at certain locations. A separate ground wire is used to keep appliances at ground potential.
The neutral wire cannot do this as currents through it can cause a voltage drop, thus raising the voltage above ground.

9. What is an Earth Leakage ?

Ans : Current that flows to ground is called earth leakage and might be produced by water in an electrical appliance or someone standing on the ground touching something that is live.

10. What is a Power Surge ?

Ans : A power surge, also called a spike or transient, is a short-duration electrical disturbance with high levels of voltage and current. Depending on their source and magnitude, surges can cause immediate, catastrophic damage or the continuous degradation (latent damage) of electronic systems and components. Surges can come from sources inside and outside a building. Even under normal power conditions, surges are generated within a facility by the on/off cycling of electrical loads, such as air conditioners and compressors. These types of surges continuously assault electronic components causing them to malfunction or fail. Surges can be created when a disconnected electrical load is reconnected. For example, when the utility recovers from an outage and power is reintroduced to a building, a very fast high-voltage pulse is induced. This high-voltage pulse is due to the sudden change  in current flow in the electrical distribution system. As a result, these changes in the system (disconnecting and reconnecting of loads) can create surges. Power surges assault circuit boards, control logic power boards and other components in electrical and electronic devices, causing them to malfunction or fail.

11. What is a Blackout ?

Ans : When an electric utility company is unable to  provide enough power to meet its customer's demands, it will methodically turn off power to blocks of customers for a period of time. This power allocation helps ensure customers have electrical service, even if it is interrupted for a little while, rather than no power at all for extended periods of time. These power allocation events are known as "blackouts" or planned outages. Power Surges are caused from Blackouts.

12. What are Surge Protection Devices ?

Ans :  SPDs or Surge Protection Devices are designed to "catch" a surge, then conduct the harmful levels of current away from the devices it is protecting. When building loads are re-energized and the utility reapplies power to the distribution system, spikes will be generated. SPDs sense the spikes as they enter the building electrical system and shunt them away before the surge can damage the building loads. In this way, loads are protected from the excessive voltage and current from a surge, so they are not damaged by them. So, the device that is used to safeguard against surges is called a surge protection device or SPD. SPDs reduce voltage surges to an acceptable level that can be tolerated by sensitive loads connected to the system.

13. Can you please tell me about Circuit Breakers ?

Ans : While a fuse protects a circuit, it is destroyed in the process of opening the circuit. Once the problem
that caused the increased current or heat is corrected, a new fuse must be placed in the circuit. A circuit
protection device that can be used more than once solves the problems of replacement fuses. Such a
device is safe, reliable, and tamper proof. It is also resettable, so it can be reused without replacing any
parts. This device is called a CIRCUIT BREAKER because it breaks (opens) the circuit.

14. What are Fuse Holders ?

Ans : For a fuse to be useful, it must be connected to the circuit it will protect. Some fuses are "wired in"
or soldered to the wiring of circuits, but most circuits make use of FUSE HOLDERS. A fuseholder is a
device that is wired into the circuit and allows easy replacement of the fuse.

15. What is a Surge Protector ?

Ans : A TRANSIENT VOLTAGE is a temporary, unwanted voltage in an electrical circuit. Transient Voltages are normally erratic, large voltages or spikes that have a short duration and a shout rise time. Devices like Computers, Electronic Circuits (TVs – Microwave Ovens – Sound Systems etc) require protection against Transient Voltages. Protection methods usually include proper wiring to National Electrical Code Requirements, to include grounding, shielding of the power lines, and use of Surge Protectors.

A Surge Protector is an electrical device that provides protection from high-level transient voltages by limiting the level of voltage allowed downstream from the Surge Protector/Suppressor (more commonly called a Surge Suppressor). Surge Protector/Suppressors can be installed at service entrance panels and individual loads.

Topics Covered

Black body radiation and the Planck law. Stimulated and spontaneous emission, atomic and spectral line width, 3-level atomic, systems. Laser operation under steady state condition, laser output coupling and power . Q-switching and mode locking. Line broadening mechanisms: homogeneous and inhomogeneous broadening. Open resonator and Gaussion beam, stability criterion for optical resonators. Principles of operation of gas, solid state and semiconductor lasers.

Topics Covered

Introduction to Thin Film Technology. Vacuum systems. Kinetic theory of gases. The physics and chemistry of evaporation/deposition mechanism. Physical vapor deposition and related techniques. Theories of epitaxy and nucleation, molecular beam epitaxy. Chemical vapor deposition techniques: reaction types, growth kinetics. Liquid phase epitaxy and related techniques. Theories of plasma and discharges. Sputtering  (DC, RF and ECR). Solution based deposition techniques (Sol-gel), spray pyrolysis.

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Definition and measure of information, information capacity. Fundamentals of error control coding: forward error correction (FEC) and automatic repeat request. . Binary coding: and automatic repeat request. Binary Coding: properties of codes, construction of binary compact codes. Convolutional coding: Viterbi and sequential decoding; algebra of linear block codes; error correction and detection using block codes; transmission line codes.

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Biological nervous system : the bran and neurons . Artificial neural networks. Historical backgrounds. Hebbian associator . Perceptions : learning rule, illustration ,proof, failing Adaptive linear ( ADALINE) and Multiple Adaptive linear (MADALINE) networks . Multilayer perceptions: generating internal representation Back propagation, cascade correlation and counter propagation networks. Higher order and bidirectional associated memory .Hopfield networks: Lyapunov energy function. attraction basin. Probabilistic updates: simulated annealing, Boltzman machine. Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART) network ART1, ART2, Fuzzy ART mapping ( ARTMAP) networks. Kohonen's feature map, learning vector Quantization ( LVQ) networks. Applications of neural nets.

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Numerical methods. Graphical methods. Equations with known exact solution. Analysis of singular points. Analytical methods. Forced oscillation systems. Systems described by differtial difference equations. Linear differential equation with varying coefficient. Stability of nonlinear systems.

Topics Covered

Wavelet transform. Chaos and bifurcation theorems. Walsh function. Green's function. Finite element techniques. Fuzzy logic. Genetic algorithms.

Topics Covered

Numerical techniques using computer solution of differentiation and integration  problems, transcendental equations, linear and non-linear differential equations and partial differential equations.

Topics Covered

Wiring system design, drafting, estimation. Design for illumination and lighting. Electrical installations system design: substation, BBT and protection, air-conditioning, heating and lifts. Design for intercom, public address systems, telephone system and LAN. Design of security systems including CCTV, fire alarm, smoke detector, burglar alarm, and sprinkler system. A design problem on a multi-storied building.

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Practical study of electronic equipment: radio receivers, television receivers, Audio Cassette and CD player, VCR, VCP, DVD player, satellite TV receiver system.

Topics Covered

Human body: Cells and physiological systems. Bioelectricity: genesis  and characteristics. Measurement of bio-signals: Ethical issues, transducers, amplifiers and filters. Electrocardiogram: electrocardiography, phono cardiograph, vector cardiograph, analysis and interpretation of cardiac signals, cardiac pacemakers and defibrillator. Blood pressure: systolic, diastolic mean pressure, electronic manometer, detector circuits and practical problems in pressure monitoring. Blood flow measurement: Plethymography and electromagnetic flow meter. Measurement and interpretation: electroencephalogram, cerebral angiograph and cronical X-ray. Brain scans. Electromayogram (EMG). Tomograph: Positron emission tomography and computer tomography. Magnetic resonance imaging. Ultrasonogram. Patient monitoring system and medical telemetry. Effect of electromagnetic fields on human body.

Topics Covered

Introduction: Applications, functional elements of a measurement system and classification of instruments. Measurement of electrical quantities: Current and voltage, power and energy measurement. Current and potential transformer. Transducers: mechanical, electrical and optical. Measurement of non-electrical quantities: Temperature, pressure, flow, level, strain, force and torque. Basic elements of DC and AC signal  conditioning: Instrumentation amplifier, noise and source of noise, noise elimination compensation, function generation and linearization, A/D and D/A converters, sample and hold circuits. Data Transmission and Telemetry: Methods of data transmission, DC/AC telemetry system and digital data transmission. Recording and display devices. Data acquisition system and microprocessor applications in instrumentation.

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Nanosystems and Devices:  Introduction-  nanomaterials, nanodevices, nanostructures. Nanoscale Lithography: X-ray, Electron-Beam and Ion-Beam; Soft Lithography; Scanning Probe Lithography. Advances in Device Technology: nanoscale silicon devices, process technology, present challenges. Self Assembled Nanocrystals: self assembly, surface defects and passivation, structures, energy levels, transitions, luminescence and lasing. Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS): stress in thin films, mechanical to electrical transduction, surface  engineering techniques, process flow, NEMS actuators, high aspect ratio system technology. Nano Biotechnology: scope and dimensions; detection of biological species on electrical, mechanical and optical criteria; Bio functionality on silicon; Biochip sensors and systems- structures, process technology.

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Nanomaterials and nanostructures: graphene, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, molecules and organic nanostructures. Synthesis methods of nanostructures: electric arc, pulsed laser deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD); thermal CVD, catalytic CVD, micro wave CVD (MWCVD), plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD), spray pyrolysis. Physical and opto-electronic properties; characterization techniques. Applications: carbon nanotube and graphene based devices, bio-sensors, bio-inspired nanostructures, molecular motors, fuel cells and solar cells.

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Fundamentals of quantum mechanics: effective-mass Schrodinger Equation, matrix representation, Greenis function: Fundamentals of nonequilibrium statistical mechanics: scattering and relaxation. Carrier transport: density of states, current, tunneling and transmission probabilities, introduction to transport in the collective picture. Basic principles of a few effective devices: resonant tunnel diode, super lattice, quantum wire and dot.

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Introduction to N port network for lossless Junctions . Resonant circuits and different types of resonators. Modern microwave transmission lines and microwave integrated circuits (MICs); TEM, quasi TEM and non TEM type MIC lines, microstrip lines. Microwave passive devices: directional couplers, hybrid junction / magic T, Wilkinson power divider, microstrip line filters, isolators, phase shifters, attenuators. Microwave amplifiers and oscillators.

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Generalized approach to field theory: introduction to reaction concept, wave propagation through isotropic, anisotropic and gyrotropic media. Scattering of EM Waves. Microwave antennas-theory and design. Advanced topics in EM theory.

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Electron guns and their design; interaction of electron beams and electromagnetic fields. Details of microwave tubes. Masers, parametric amplifiers, microwave circuits . Matrix representation of microwave component design. Analysis of  waveguide discontinuations and non-reciprocal microwave circuits , selected topics.

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Circuit theory for wave guide systems. N port circuits: impedance matrix, admittance matrix, scattering matrix and transmission matrix, their properties. Periodic structures and filters: wave analysis, impedance matching, wave and group velocities; comb lines and their analysis: introduction to filters, filter design by image parameter and insertion-loss methods; design of different type of filters.

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Types of optical waveguides: optical integrated circuits and guiding structures. Basics of optical waveguide analysis: basic equations for light waves, polarization of light, reflection and refraction, wave equations. Guided and radiation modes in dielectric slab waveguides. Coupled mode theory. Analytical solution for optical waveguides: WKB method, Marcatili's method, effective index method, equivalent network method. Computer aided design of integrated optical waveguide devices. Application of photonics to microwave devices. Nonlinear optical waveguides.

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Definitions, antenna as antenna as an aperture : arrays of point sources : review of  dipoles, loop and thin linear antennas . Helical antenna, biconical and spheroidal  antennas . internal-equation methods, current distribution : Self and mutual impedances : arrays : design and synthesis. Reflector type antennas . Banbiner`s principle and complementary antennas . Application of reaction concept and vocational principles  in antennas and propagation. Frequency independent antennas . Scattering and diffraction . Selected topics in microwave antennas . Antenna measurements . Application of broadcasting ,microwave links, satellite communication and radio astronomy.

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Review of multimedia communications; asynchronous and synchronous transmission techniques, synchronization issues and challenges, advanced signal compression, error-detection and correction methods; high-speed multimedia communication networks, switched network and enterprise networks; emerging technologies: ATM, SONET, SDH, ISDN, SMDS networks and their framing  formats, bandwidth requirements; traffic characteristics, traffic scheduling, resource reservation, and QoS issues of multimedia networks; wireless network for multimedia, mobile IP and mobile Adhoc networking, network security and secured remote access; protocol specification, UDP, TCP/IP and OSI reference models, SS7 and HDLC protocols, FTP, H.26x, RTP, SCTP, MSCTP, ICMP: message formats and transmission; voice over IP and mobile IP protocols, IPv6/IPv4 interoperability; advanced routing mechanisms, broadcast and multicast routing, watermarking and authentication for multimedia documents; NGI and Internet 2, revolutionary applications of Internet, transcoding of Internets multimedia content for universal access; entertainment networks, IP applications, audio and video conferencing, Internet through mobile and WiMAX.

Topics Covered

Overview of broadband wireless communications, multiple access techniques  -  TDMA, FDMA. Spread spectrum communications  -  direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), FHSS, THSS, modulator and demodulator structure, probability of error, jamming margin, decoding, performance in the presence of interference, PN sequence, CDMA, MC-CDMA, UWB transmission. Multi-user detection: multiple access interference, detector performance measure -BER, asymptotic efficiency, near-far resistance; detectors  - matched filter detector, de-correlator detector, MMSE detector, SIC, PIC, MAP and MLSE detectors. Propagation in mobile radio channels; channel models, fading –  large scale and small scale fading, flat fading and frequency selective fading channel, fast fading and slow fading  channel; delay spread, Doppler spread and angle spread; channel autocorrelation functions, scattering function, correlated and uncorrelated scattering (US), WSS and WSSUS model. Multiple antenna systems, capacity of SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO systems, ergodic capacity, outage capacity, STBC, OSTBC, QOSTBC, spatial multiplexing (SM) scheme, SM detection techniques, diversity and diversity combining techniques. Multi-carrier communications; Orthogonal FDM (OFDM), OFDM transceivers. Special issues of OFDM  - cyclic prefix, timing offset, frequency offset, synchronization, peak power problem, Broadband wireless standards.

Topics Covered

Optical networking: principles and challenges; evolution of optical networks, wavelength routed network, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) network, sub-carrier multiplexing optical networks. Enabling technologies: optical transmitter, optical fiber, optical receivers, optical amplifiers, optical switching elements, optical cross-connects(OXC), multiplexers/demultiplexers, wavelength routers, optical wavelength converters, WDM network test beds. Network architecture, IP over WDM. Broadcast optical networks: single and multiple hop networks, channel sharing and multi-casting, shared channel multicasting network-GEMNET, performance evaluation for unicast and multicast traffic, experimental WDM networks. Wavelength routed networks: virtual topology design, routing and wavelength assignment, circuit switched and packet switched approaches, performance evaluation. Reconfiguration in WDM network, network control and management, network optimization, design considerations. Multi wavelength star and ring networks. Photonic switching, optical TDM (OTDM) and optical CDMA (O-CDMA)networks, next generation optical networks.

Topics Covered

Challenges in modern communications technology, baseband and broadband signal transmission, first and second Nyquists criteria for zero intersymbol interference; robust signal compression and detection techniques, optimum receivers, design of frequency-  and time-domain equalizers and echo cancellers; wired and wireless channel characteristics, AWGN channels, time-varying multipath faded channels, channel modeling; advanced source and channel coding techniques, high bit rate digital modulation schemes and MODEMs; SS7 and HDLC protocols, H.323, H.26x, RTP and SCTP; modern high speed communication networks and emerging technologies, access and backbone networks, intelligent networks, NGN; advanced switching and routing principles, complex multiplexing and multiple access techniques, orthogonal signals, OFDM, DWDM; broadband wireless communication, spread spectrum techniques, CDMA2000 and WCDMA, multi-carrier systems; 3G and 3GPP mobile communications and WiMAX technology, UMTS, VoIP, IP TV, HDTV.

Topics Covered

Introduction: Concept, evolution and fundamentals. Analog and digital  cellular systems. Cellular Radio System: Frequency reuse, co-channel interference, cell splitting and components. Mobile radio propagation: Propagation characteristics, models for radio propagation, antenna at cell site and mobile antenna. Frequency Management and Channel Assignment: Fundamentals, spectrum utilization, fundamentals of channel assignment, fixed channel assignment, non-fixed channel assignment, traffic and channel assignment. Handoffs and Dropped Calls: Reasons and types, forced handoffs, mobile assisted handoffs and dropped call rate. Diversity Techniques: Concept of diversity branch and signal paths, carrier to noise and carrier to interference ratio performance. Digital cellular systems: Global system for mobile, time division multiple access and code division multiple access.

Topics Covered

Introduction: Communication channels, mathematical model and characteristics. Probability and stochastic processes. Source coding: Mathematical models of information, entropy, Huffman code and linear predictive coding. Digital transmission system: Base band digital transmission, inter symbol interference, bandwidth, power efficiency, modulation and coding trade-off. Receiver for AWGN channels: Correlation demodulator, matched filter demodulator and maximum likelihood receiver. Channel capacity and coding: Channel models and capacities and random  selection of codes. Block codes and conventional codes: Linear block codes, convolution codes and coded modulation. Spread spectrum signals and system.

Topics Covered

Introduction. Light propagation through optical fiber: Ray optics theory and mode theory. Optical fiber: Types and characteristics, transmission characteristics, fiber joints and fiber couplers. Light sources: Light emitting diodes and laser diodes. Detectors: PIN photo-detector and avalanche photo-detectors. Receiver analysis: Direct detection and coherent detection, noise and limitations. Transmission limitations: Chromatic dispersion, nonlinear refraction, four wave mixing and laser phase noises. Optical amplifier: Laser and fiber amplifiers, applications and limitations. Multi-channel optical system: Frequency division multiplexing, wavelength division multiplexing and co-channel interference. Optical fibre: modes of propagation, transmission characteristics, waveguide analysis. Optical sources: light emitting diode (LED) and semiconductor laser diode (SLD); operational principles, characteristic curves; optical transmitter design using LED/SLD. Optical amplifiers: laser and fibre amplifier5s. Photo detectors: P-i-N and avalanche photo detectors (APDs), noise sources. Optional modulation and detection schemes. Direct and coherent detection receivers: configuration, operation, noise sources, sensitivity calculation, performance curves. Design of analog and digital receivers. Transmission link analysis: point-to point and point-to multi-point links, system configuration, link power budget, rise time budget, line coding schemes, transmission system limitations, design of fibre-optic systems. Optical data buses, optical networks, fibre distributed data interface (FDDI) and synchronous optical network (SONET). Optional frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) transmission systems.

Topics Covered

Optical properties in semiconductor: Direct and indirect band-gap materials, radiative and non-radiative  recombination, optical absorption, photo-generated excess carriers, minority carrier life time, luminescence and quantum efficiency in radiation. Properties of light: Particle and wave nature of light, polarization, interference, diffraction and blackbody radiation. Light emitting diode (LED): Principles, materials for visible and infrared LED, internal and external efficiency, loss mechanism, structure and coupling to optical fibers. Stimulated emission and light amplification: Spontaneous and stimulated  emission, Einstein relations, population inversion, absorption of radiation, optical feedback and threshold conditions. Semiconductor Lasers: Population inversion in degenerate semiconductors, laser cavity, operating wavelength, threshold current density, power output, hetero-junction lasers, optical and electrical confinement. Introduction to quantum well lasers. Photo-detectors: Photoconductors, junction photo-detectors, PIN detectors, avalanche
photodiodes and phototransistors. Solar cells: Solar energy  and spectrum, silicon and Schottkey solar cells. Modulation of light: Phase and amplitude modulation, electro-optic effect, acousto-optic effect and magneto-optic devices. Introduction to integrated optics.

Topics Covered

H.F transmission lines, Smith chart, Impedance matching techniques and applications. Guided E.M. waves, Parallel plane and Rectangular waveguides, Cavity resonator. Antennas and radiation, Small current element antenna, Long straight antenna, Radiation patterns and gain. Frequency Independent and Logperiodic antennas. Antenna arrays: Broadside and Endfire array, Phase scanning of Antennas arrays. Transit time effects, Velocity modulation, Microwave tubes: Klystron amplifier, Multicavity Klystron amplifier, Reflex Klystron oscillator, Magnetron Oscillator, Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA), Backward Wave Oscillator(BWO). Transmission lines: Voltage and current in ideal transmission lines, reflection, transmission, standing wave, impedance transformation, Smith chart, impedance matching and lossy transmission lines. Waveguides: general formulation, modes of propagation and losses in parallel plate, rectangular and circular waveguides. Microstrips: Structures and characteristics. Rectangular resonant cavities: Energy storage, losses and Q. Radiation: Small current element, radiation resistance, radiation pattern and properties, Hertzian and halfwave dipoles. Antennas: Mono pole, horn, rhombic and parabolic reflector, array, and Yagi-Uda antenna.

Topics Covered

Review of vector analysis. (a) Electrostatics: Coulomb's law, force, electric field intensity, electrical flux density. Gauss's theorem with application, Electrostatic potential, boundary conditions, method of images, Laplace's and Poisson's equations, energy of an electrostatic system, conductor and dielectrics. (b) Magnetostatics: Concepts of magnetic field, Ampere's law, Bio-Savart law, vector magnetic potential, energy of magnetostatic system, Mechanical forces and torques in Electric and Magnetic fields. Curvilinear co-ordinates, rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, solutions to static field problems. Graphical field mapping with applications, solution to Laplace equations, rectangular, cylindrical and spherical harmonics with applications. Maxwell's equations: Their derivatives, continuity of charges, concepts of displacement currents. Boundary conditions for time varying systems. Potentials used with varying charges and currents. Retarded potentials. Maxwell's equations in different coordinate systems. Relation between circuit theory and field theory: Circuit concepts and derivations from the field equations. High frequency circuit concepts, circuit radiation resistance. Skin effect and circuit impedance. Concept of good and perfect conductors and dielectrics. Current distribution in various types of conductors, depth of penetration, internal impedance, power loss, calculation of inductance and capacitance. Propagation and reflection of electromagnetic waves in unbounded media: plane wave propagation, polarization, power flow and Poynting's theorem. Transmission line analogy, reflection from conducting and dielectric boundary display lines ion in dielectrics, liquids and solids, plane wave propagation through the ionosphere. Introduction to radiation.  Static electric field: Postulates of electrostatics, Coulombs law for discrete and continuously distributed charges, Gausss law and its application, electric potential due to charge distribution, conductors and dielectrics in static electric field, flux density-  boundary conditions; capacitance-  electrostatic energy and forces, energy in terms of field equations, capacitance calculation of different geometries; boundary value problems-Poissons and Laplaces equations in different co-ordinate systems. Steady electric current: Ohms law, continuity equation, Joules law, resistance calculation. Static Magnetic field: Postulates of magnetostatics, Biot-Savarts law, Amperes law and applications, vector magnetic potential, magnetic dipole, magnetization, magnetic field intensity and relative permeability, boundary conditions for magnetic field, magnetic energy, magnetic forces, torque and inductance of different geometries. Time varying fields and Maxwells equations: Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, Maxwells equations  -  differential and integral forms, boundary conditions, potential functions; time harmonic fields and Poynting theorem. Plane electromagnetic wave: plane wave in loss less media- Doppler effect, transverse electromagnetic wave, polarization of plane wave; plane wave in lossy media-  low-loss dielectrics, good conductors; group velocity, instantaneous and average power densities, normal and oblique incidence of plane waves at plane boundaries for different polarization.  

Topics Covered

Overview of communication systems, signal spectra, Amplitude modulation and demodulation: DSB-SC, SSB, VSB. Frequency modulation and demodulation: NBFM, WBFM and Phase Modulation (PM). Pulse Modulation:  PAM, PCM, Delta Modulation, Frequency division and time division multiplexing and their application. Digital Modulation systems, Modems, Introduction to teletraffic theory. Radio wave propagation, effects of ionosphere and earth's curvature. Introduction  to satellite communication. Introduction to cellular mobile communication. Introduction to telephony, different types of switching, SPC and digital switching systems, time and space switching. Introduction to ATM, SDH, SONET and optical communications. RADAR and its applications. Introduction: Principle, evolution, networks, exchange and international regulatory bodies. Telephone apparatus: Microphone, speakers, ringer, pulse and tone dialing mechanism, side-tone mechanism, local and central batteries and advanced features. Switching system: Introduction to analog system, digital switching systems space division switching, blocking probability and multistage switching, time division switching and two dimensional switching. Traffic analysis: Traffic characterization, grades of service, network blocking probabilities, delay system and queuing. Modern telephone services and network: Internet telephony, facsimile, integrated services digital network, asynchronous transfer mode and intelligent networks. Introduction to cellular telephony and satellite communication.

Topics Covered

Overview of communication systems: Basic principles, fundamental elements, system limitations, message source, bandwidth requirements, transmission media types, bandwidth and transmission capacity. Noise: Source, characteristics of various types of noise and signal to noise ratio. Information theory: Measure of information, source encoding, error free communication over a noisy channel, channel capacity of a continuous system and channel capacity of a discrete memoryless system. Communication systems: Analog and digital. Continuous wave modulation: Transmission types-  base-band transmission, carrier transmission; amplitude modulation-introduction, double side band, single side band, vestigial side band, quadrature; spectral analysis of each type, envelope and synchronous detection; angle modulation-  instantaneous frequency, frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM), spectral analysis, demodulation of FM and PM. Pulse modulation: Sampling- sampling theorem, Nyquist criterion, aliasing, instantaneous and natural sampling; pulse amplitude modulation-  principle, bandwidth requirements; pulse code modulation (PCM)- quantization principle, quantization noise, non-uniform quantization, signal to quantization error ratio, differential PCM, demodulation of PCM; delta modulation (DM)- principle, adaptive DM; line coding-  formats and bandwidths. Digital modulation: Amplitude-shift keying-principle, ON-OFF keying, bandwidth requirements, detection, noise performance; phase-shift keying (PSK)-principle, bandwidth requirements, detection, differential PSK, quadrature PSK, noise performance; frequency-shift keying (FSK)-  principle, continuous and discontinuous phase FSK, minimum-shift keying, bandwidth requirements, detection of FSK. Multiplexing: Time-division multiplexing (TDM)- principle, receiver synchronization, frame synchronization, TDM of multiple bit rate systems; frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)-  principle, de-multiplexing; wavelength-division multiplexing, multiple-access network-  time-division multiple-access (TDMA), frequency-division multiple access (FDMA); code-division multiple-access (CDMA) - spread spectrum
multiplexing, coding techniques and constraints of CDMA. Communication system design: design parameters, channel selection criteria and performance simulation.

Topics Covered

Dynamic medical signals: electrocardiogram, electroencephalogram, electromyogram. Detailed analyses of electromedical signals: waveform, origin, interpretation and significance. Linear and nonlinear parametric modeling: autoregressive (AR), moving average (MA), autoregressive moving average (ARMA), bilinear models. Nonlinear nonparametric modeling: neural network, fractal and chaos based models. Software based medical signal detection and pattern recognition. Medical image analysis and compression. On-line monitoring and diagnosis.

Topics Covered

Fundamentals of molecular biology, genomics, and proteomics; DNA and microarray; genome sequencing; microarray technology and data pre-processing; gene feature selection; gene expression analysis; hidden Markov Model-based and time-frequency analysis of genomics and proteomic sequences, regulatory motif discovery; gene finding; gene clustering and classification; proteomic technologies, protein-protein interactions  and protein function prediction, modeling and inference for genetic regulatory networks, emerging applications of genomic signal processing.

Topics Covered

Speech production and phonetics: speech organs, articulatory phonentics, acoustic theory of speech production, vocal tract models, speech analysis: time and frequency domain analysis, formant and pitch estimation, speech coding: linear predictive coding (LPC), vocoders, vector quantization, speech enhancement techniques, speech synthesis: formant and LPC synthesizers, effect of different speeches and languages, automatic  speech and speaker recognition: feature extraction, hidden Markov models, noise robustness, measures of similarity, language and accent identification.

Topics Covered

Formation and representation of video, spatio-temporal video sampling, motion analysis and estimation: real versus apparent motion, optical flow, block- and mesh-based methods for motion estimation and region-based stochastic motion modeling, motion segmentation and layered video representations, video filtering: motion-compensated filtering, noise reduction, signal recovery, deblurring, superresolution, mosaicing, deinterlacing and frame-rate conversion, video compression techniques and standards, content-based video indexing and retrieval, video communication: digital television, streaming over IP and wireless networks, error control and watermarking, stereo and multiview sequence processing.

Topics Covered

Fundamentals of image processing: image formation, representation in pixel and transform domains, reconstruction from projections and interpolation, human visual system, stochastic models for images, enhancement and restoration techniques in spatial and frequency domains, image processing in color space, morphological filters, multi-resolution image processing, image compression techniques and standards, segmentation for edge  detection and texture analysis, pattern classification, image watermarking, registration and fusion, emerging applications of image processing.

Topics Covered

Adaptive filtering: Review of the LMS and RLS algorithms, adaptive lattice-ladder filters, frequency-domain adaptive filtering methods, variable step-size adaptive filters, application of adaptive filtering, Power spectrum estimation: Review of parametric techniques for power spectrum estimation, high resolution methods, Multirate signal processing: filter banks: cosine modulated filter banks, paraunitary QMF banks, multidimensional  filter banks, emerging applications of multirate signal processing.

Topics Covered

Spectral estimation: Nonparametric methods discrete random processes, autocorrelation sequence, periodogram; parametric method  autoregressive modeling, forward/backward linear prediction, Levinson-Durbin algorithm, minimum variance method and Eigenstructure method I and II. Adaptive signal processing: Application, equalization, interference suppression, noise cancellation, FIR filters, minimum mean-square error criterion, least mean-square algorithm and recursive least square algorithm. Multirate DSP: Interpolation and decimation, poly-phase representation and multistage implementation. Perfect reconstruction filter banks: Power symmetric, alias-free multi-channel and tree structured filter banks. Wavelets: Short time Fourier transform, wavelet transform, discrete time orthogonal wavelets and continuous time wavelet basis.

Topics Covered

Probability and random variables. Distribution and density functions and conditional probability. Expectation: moments and characteristic functions. Transformation of a random variable. Vector random variables. Joint distribution and density. Independence. Sums of random variables. Random Processes. Correlation functions. Process measurements. Gaussian and Poisson random processes. Noise models. Stationarity and Ergodicity. Spectral Estimation. Correlation and power spectrum. Cross spectral densities. Response of linear systems to random inputs. Introduction to discrete time processes, Mean-square error estimation, Detection and linear filtering.

Topics Covered

Discrete time signals and systems. Discrete transforms: Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT), Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT), The Z-transform and its application in Signal processing. Correlation and Convolution: Review of convolution, circular convolution, auto-correlation, cross correlation, implementation of correlation and convolution. Digital filters: Introduction to Finite Impulse Response (FIR) and Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) digital filters, various techniques of FIR and IIR filter design, realization of FIR and IIR filters, finite-precision effects. A brief overview of artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic and genetic algorithm. MATLAB application to digital signal processing (DSP). Introduction to digital signal processing (DSP): Discrete-time signals and systems, analog to digital conversion, impulse response, finite impulse response (FIR) and infinite impulse response (IIR) of discrete-time systems, difference  equation, convolution, transient and steady state response. Discrete transformations: Discrete Fourier series, discrete-time Fourier series, discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and properties, fast Fourier transform (FFT), inverse fast Fourier transform, z-transformation - properties, transfer function, poles and zeros and inverse z-transform. Correlation: circular convolution, auto-correlation and cross correlation. Digital Filters: FIR filters- linear phase filters, specifications, design using window, optimal and frequency sampling methods; IIR filters-specifications, design using impulse invariant, bi-linear z-transformation, least-square methods and finite precision effects.

Topics Covered

Classification of signals and systems: signals- classification, basic operation on signals, elementary signals, representation of signals using impulse function; systems-  classification. Properties of Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems: Linearity, causality, time invariance, memory, stability, invertibility. Time domain analysis of LTI systems: Differential equations- system representation, order of the system, solution techniques, zero state and zero input response, system properties; impulse response-  convolution integral, determination of system properties; state variable- basic concept, state equation and time domain solution. Frequency domain analysis of LTI systems: Fourier series- properties, harmonic representation, system response, frequency response of LTI systems; Fourier transformation-  properties, system transfer function, system response and
distortion-less systems. Applications of time and frequency domain analyses: solution of analog electrical and mechanical systems, amplitude modulation and  demodulation, time-division and frequency-division multiplexing. Laplace transformation: properties, inverse transform, solution of system equations, system transfer function, system stability and frequency response and application.

Topics Covered

Characteristics of a linear system, methods of transient and steady state solution of differential and integro-differential equations. Network theorems. Analogous systems. Analysis by Fourier methods. Laplace transform and its application to linear circuits. Convolution integral and their applications. Matrix with simple applications in circuit: network function, poles and zeroes of a network. Distance signals and z-transform methods. System concepts: state equation and state variables for small linear systems.

Topics Covered

State space description of dynamic systems: relationship between state equations and transfer function: continuous and discrete time linear system analysis and design using state transition method. Controllability and observability. State feedback and output feedback. Pole assignment using state feedback and output  feedback. H control. Optimal control-dynamic programming. Pontryagin's minimum principle. Separation theorem. Stochastic control. Adaptive control.

Topics Covered

Z Transform and modified Z transform: root-locus and frequency method of analysis of  sampled data systems. Compensation, discrete and continuous method. Physical realization of discrete compensations.

Topics Covered

General introduction: the phase plane: method of isoclines: Linenard's method: Pelts method: common nonlinearities: transient response from phase trajectory: describing function and their applications. Relay servo mechanism. Lyapunov's method.

Topics Covered

Compensation using pole placement technique. State equations of digital systems with sample and hold, state equation of digital systems, digital simulation and approximation. Solution of discrete state equations: by z-transform, state equation and transfer  function, state diagrams, state plane analysis. Stability of digital control systems. Digital simulation and digital redesign. Time domain analysis. Frequency domain analysis. Controllability and observability. Optimal linear digital regulator design. Digital state observer. Microprocessor control. Introduction to neural network and fuzzy control, adaptive control. H Control, nonlinear control.

Topics Covered

Introduction to feedback control, terminologies with examples. Transfer function modeling of DC and AC serve  and other familiar systems. Block diagram representation and simplification to canonical form by Mason's rule, Time domain specifications , unit step response. Location of poles and stability by Routh's criterion, Root locus: Construction rules, dominant poles, stability, P+I, P+D, and P+I+D compensation using root locus. Introduction to pole placement compensation. Steady state performance: types of systems, examples, steady state error and static error coefficient. Frequency response: Bode, Nyquist's and  Nichol's plots, Gain margin, phase margin, maximum magnitude, resonant frequency and bandwidth correlation with time response. Stability from Nyquist diagram (direct: polar plot). Gain adjustment using Nichol's chart. State space representation: formation  of state equations, transfer function from state equation, stability and eigen-values of state transition matrix. Introduction to digital control.  Introduction to control systems. Linear system models: transfer function, block diagram and signal flow graph (SFG). State variables: SFG to state variables, transfer function to state variable and state variable to transfer function. Feedback control system: Closed loop systems, parameter sensitivity, transient characteristics of control systems, effect of additional pole and zero on the system response and system types and steady state error. Routh stability criterion. Analysis of feedback control system: Root locus method and frequency response method. Design of feedback control system: Controllability and observability, root locus, frequency response and state variable methods. Digital control systems: introduction, sampled data systems, stability analysis in Z-domain.

Topics Covered

Overview of power electronic applications at utility and demand sides; sources of harmonics; utility devices and consumer loads. Various models for nonlinear and dynamic loads. High voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission system modeling. AC-DC load flow studies. Modeling of flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS): conventional thyristor controlled reactors and phase shifters, voltage source inverter (VSI) based static condenser (STATCON) and unified power flow controller (UPFC). Transient stability and sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) studies incorporating super conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) model. Modeling of utility interfaced photovoltaic and wind energy sources. Power quality, cyclic and noncyclic voltage  flicker, total harmonic distortion (THD) analysis, remedial measures and harmonic load flow studies.

Topics Covered

Overview of requirements and constraints, real time operation and monitoring in power system; supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). Energy management system (EMS); on-line application functions; state estimation, short term load forecasting, unit commitment, automatic generation control (AGC), load frequency control (LFC) and security control. Open architecture EMS, on-line algorithm's speed enhancement: sparsity exploitation, fast decoupling, model/system decomposition, parallel processing-hierarchical computer and array processor configuration, application of expert system, pattern recognition, artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms. EMS in the context of deregulation of utilities and independent system operator (ISO).

Topics Covered

Basic objectives of power system planning. Generation expansion planning process. Electrical demand forecasting; current demand forecasting approaches. Generation planning; economic analysis, expected energy generation, expected fuel cost. Both-Baleriux, cummulant and segmentation methods. Probabilistic simulation of hydro and energy limited units. Expected energy production cost of interconnected systems. Economic aspects of interconnection. Different aspects of load management; effects of load Management on reliability and  on production cost. Joint ownership of generation.

Topics Covered

Review of basic probability theory. Basic reliability concepts. Markovian model of generation unit. Development of load models. Probabilistic simulation of generating systems. Reliability indices. Recursive, segmentation and cummulant method to obtain loss of load probability (LOLP). Modeling of forecast uncertainty. Reliability evaluation of energy limited systems. Different techniques of evaluating reliability, reliability indices of interconnected systems. Composite transmission and generating system reliability.

Topics Covered

Transients in simple electric and magnetically linked circuits, fundamentals: impacts of switching
on rotating machinery. Parallel operation of interconnected networks; distribution of power
impacts. Interaction of Governor's in power systems. Overvoltage during power system faults.
Systems voltage recovery characteristics. Effect of arc restriking on recovery voltage. Switching
surges and overvoltage caused by sudden loss of load and by open conductor.

Topics Covered

Principles of angular and voltage stability. Methods of multi machine transient stability: direct methods and time domain simulation. Equal area criterion. Extended equal area criterion, transient energy function (TEF) methods. Nonlinear system stability-  Lyapunov's method. State space concepts and dynamic system representation. Eigen vectors in dynamic system analysis. Detailed modeling, simplifications, salient synchronous machines and induction machines modeling. Turbine governor, generator excitation systems and their representation in stability models. Power system stabilizers. On line identification and improvement of stability through on line control.

Topics Covered

Review of characteristics of over current, directional, differential, distance and pilot relays.
Principles of relay design. Effects of transients on relay operation. Harmonic relaying. Static and
digital relays. Applications of static and digital relaying in various protection schemes. 

Topics Covered

General review of network theory, matrix analysis and computer modeling. Incidance matrices, primitive networks and formation of impedance and admittance network matrices. Algorithms for formation of network matrices. Three-phase networks: symmetrical components and sequence impedances, balanced and unbalanced faults. Faults impedance and admittance matrices. Short circuit studies using ZBUS and ZLCOP, open circuit fault studies. Load flow studies, power flow equations. Gauss-Seidel. Newton-Raphson, decoupled and fast decoupled methods of load flow analysis. Three phase load flow.

Topics Covered

General principles of optimization, its application to power system planning, design and operation. Probability analysis of bulk power security and outage data. Economic operation of power system-economic operation of thermal plants, combined thermal and hydro-electric plants. Theory of economic operation of interconnected areas. Development and application of transmission loss formulae for economic operation of power systems. Method of optimum scheduling and dispath of generators.

Topics Covered

High voltage DC: Rectifier circuits, voltage multipliers, Van-de-Graaf and electrostatic generators. High voltage AC: Cascaded transformers and Tesla coils. Impulse voltage: Shapes, mathematical analysis, codes and standards, single and multi-stage impulse generators, tripping and control of impulse generators. Breakdown in gas, liquid and solid dielectric materials. Corona. High voltage measurements and testing. Over-voltage phenomenon and insulation coordination. Lightning and switching surges, basic insulation level, surge diverters and arresters.

Topics Covered

Principles of power system operation: SCADA, conventional and competitive environment. Unit commitment, static security analysis, state estimation, optimal power flow, automatic generation control and dynamic security analysis.

Topics Covered

Review of probability concepts. Probability distribution: Binomial, Poisson, and Normal. Reliability concepts: Failure rate, outage, mean time to  failure, series and parallel systems and redundancy. Markov process. Probabilistic generation and load models. Reliability indices: Loss of load probability and loss of energy probability. Frequency and duration. Reliability evaluation techniques of single area system.

Topics Covered

Power plants: general layout and principles, steam turbine, gas turbine, combined cycle gas turbine, hydro and nuclear. Power plant instrumentation. Selection of location: Technical, economical and environmental factors. Load forecasting. Generation scheduling: deterministic and probabilistic. Electricity tariff: formulation and types.

Topics Covered

Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices: BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT, GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC. Rectifiers: Uncontrolled and controlled single phase and three phase. Regulated power supplies: Linear-series and shunt, switching buck, buckboost, boost and Cuk regulators. AC voltage controllers: single and three phase. Choppers. DC motor control. Single phase cycloconverter. Inverters: Single phase and three phase voltage and current source. AC motor control. Stepper motor control. Resonance inverters. Pulse width modulation control of static converters.

Topics Covered

Transmission lines cables: overhead and underground. Stability: swing equation, power angle equation, equal area criterion, multi-machine system, step by step solution of swing equation. Factors affecting stability. Reactive power compensation. Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS). High voltage DC transmission system. Power quality: harmonics, sag and swell.

Topics Covered

Network  representation: Single line and reactance diagram of power system and per unit. Line representation: equivalent circuit of short, medium and long lines. Load flow: Gauss-Siedel and Newton Raphson Methods. Power flow control: Tap changing transformer, phase shifting, booster and regulating transformer and shunt capacitor. Fault analysis: Short circuit current and reactance of a synchronous machine. Symmetrical fault calculation methods: symmetrical components, sequence networks and unsymmetrical fault calculation. Protection: Introduction to relays, differential protection and distance protection. Introduction to circuit breakers. Typical layout of a substation. Load curves: Demand factor, diversity factor, load duration curves, energy load curve, load factor, capacity factor and plant factor.

Topics Covered

Purpose of power system protection. Criteria for detecting faults: over current, differential current, difference of phase angles, over and under voltages, power direction, symmetrical components of current and voltages, impedance, frequency and temperature. Instrument transformers: CT and PT. Electromechanical, electronic and digital Relays: basic modules, over current, differential, distance and directional. Trip circuits. Unit protection schemes: Generator, transformer, motor, bus bar, transmission and distribution lines. Miniature circuit breakers and fuses. Circuit breakers: Principle of arc extinction, selection criteria and ratings of circuit breakers, types - air, oil, SF6 and vacuum.

Topics Covered

Power network representations, per unit  system of calculations, reactance of asynchronous generators and its equivalent circuit, voltage characteristics of loads, power and reactive power flow in simple systems, load flow studies of large systems using the Gauss-Seidal methods, control of voltage, power and reactive power, use of network analyzers and digital computers, symmetrical fault calculation, limitations of short circuit current using regulators. Symmetrical components-positive, negative and zero sequence networks of generators, transformers and lines, sequence network of systems, unsymmetrical fault calculations. Power system stability involving two machine systems, swing equation. Equal area criterion of stability and its applications, solution of swing equation, factors affecting transient stability.

Topics Covered

Inductance of transmission lines: Flux linkage, Inductance due to internal flux, Inductance of single phase two wire lines, Flux linkage of one conductor in a group, Inductance of composite conductor lines. GMD examples; 3 phase lines with equilateral spacing and unsymmetrical spacing. Parallel circuit 3 phase lines. Use of tables. Electrical field; potential difference between points due to a charge, capacitance of a two-wire line. Group of charged conductors. Capacitances of 3 phase lines with equilateral and with unsymmetrical spacing. Effect of earth, parallel circuit lines. Resistance and skin effect: Resistance and temperature, skin effects, influence on resistance, use of table, Current and voltage relation on a transmission line, T-  and pi-  representation, exact solution. Equivalent circuit of a long line. Mechanical characteristics of transmission line: Sag and stress analysis; Wind and ice loading, supports at different elevation conditions at erection; effect of
temperature changes. Generalized line constant: General line equation in terms of A, B, C, D constants. Relation between constants, charts of line constants, constants of combined networks, measurement of line constants. Circle Diagrams: Receiving end and sending end power circle diagrams. Voltage and power factor control in transmission systems. Tap changing Transformers; on load tap changing. Inductance regulators. Moving coil regulators; Boosting transformers. Power factor control; static condensers; synchronous condenser. Insulators for overhead lines; types of insulators, their construction and performance. Potential distribution in a string of insulators, string efficiency. Methods of equalizing potential distribution; special types of insulators, testing of insulators. Insulated cables, cables versus overhead lines, insulating materials. Electrostatic stress grading. Three core cables; dielectric losses and heating. Modern development; oil filled and gas filled cables. Measurement of capacitance. Cable testing. Introduction to transmission line
protection: over current relay and time grading, reverse power relays. Differential protection. Distant relays. Distribution: Distributor calculation, ring mains and interconnections.

Topics Covered

Design of SCR communication circuits, base and gate drive circuits of static switching devices, snubber circuits, switching losses and heat sink. Input/output filter design of static power converters. Design of protection circuits for static power converters. Scalar and vector control of AC machines using static power  converters. Design of microcomputer controllers for static power converter switching.

Topics Covered

Static switching devices, characteristics of SCR, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, GTO, MCT. Classifications of static power converters and their application. Control circuits for static power converters. Pulse width modulation; PWM control of static power converters. Switch mode DC to DC converters, resonant converters, Fourier analysis of static converter waveforms, HD, THD, pf, ZVS and ZCS of static converters. Hysteresis current of AC drives.

Topics Covered

Energy conversion processes; general introduction, energy sources, principles or conservation of
energy balance equations. Direct electrical energy conversion: introduction: magnetohydronamic
(MHD): fuel cell: thermoelectrostatic: ferro-electric: photo-electric: photovoltaic, electrostatic and
piezoelectric energy conversions: characteristics including efficiency, power densities, terminal
properties and limitations. Electromechanical  energy conversion: general introduction of electrical
to mechanical, mechanical to electrical and electrical to electrical conversions. Bulk energy
conversion devices. General formulations of equations; co-ordinate transformation and terminal
characteristics.

Topics Covered

General treatment of Electrical Machine Design. Review of standard procedures in design of DC machines. AC machines, transformers and special machines. Optimization and synthesis of design procedures. Applications of material balance and critical path principles in electrical design. Design economics and safety factors. Applications of computers in modern designs including the operation of the machine in the nonlinear ranges: Magnetic flux-plots and heat transfer process etc. Mechanical design of electrical machinery and relation between machanical and electrical machine design.

Topics Covered

Permanent magnet machines. Hysteresis machine. Eddy current devices: homopolar machines. PAM motors and reluctance machines.

Topics Covered

Introduction to generalized machine theory. Kron's primitive machine: moving to fixed-axis transformation; Park's transformation: three-phase to d-q transformation: variable co-efficient transformation: other transformations. Matrix and tensor analysis of machines. Three phase synchronous and induction machines: two-phase servo motor: single phase induction motor. Smooth-air gap two-phase synchronous machine. Two-phase induction machine. The n-m winding symmetrical machine. Diagonalization by charge of variable. Symmetrical three-phase machine and special limiting cases.

Topics Covered

Special machines: series universal motor, permanent magnet DC motor, unipolar and bipolar brushless DC motors, stepper motor and control circuits. Reluctance and hysteresis motors with drive circuits, switched reluctance motor, electro static motor, repulsion motor, synchros and control transformers. Permanent magnet synchronous motors. Acyclic machines: Generators, conduction pump and induction pump. Magneto hydrodynamic generators. Fuel Cells, thermoelectric generators, flywheels. Vector control, linear motors and traction. Photovoltaic systems: stand alone and grid interfaced. Wind turbine generators: induction generator, AC-DC-AC conversion.

Topics Covered

Synchronous Generator: excitation systems, equivalent circuit, vector diagrams at different loads, factors affecting voltage regulation, synchronous impedance, synchronous impedance method of predicting voltage regulation and its limitations.  Parallel operation: Necessary conditions, synchronizing, circulating current and vector diagram. Synchronous motor: Operation, effect of loading under different excitation condition, effect of changing excitation, V-curves and starting. DC generator: Types, no-load voltage characteristics, build-up of a self excited shunt generator, critical field resistance, load-voltage characteristic, effect of speed on no-load and load characteristics and voltage regulation. DC motor: Torque, counter emf, speed, torque-speed characteristics, starting and speed regulation. Introduction to wind turbine generators Construction and basic characteristics of solar cells.

Topics Covered

Transformer: Ideal transformer-  transformation ratio, no-load and load vector diagrams; actual transformer-  equivalent circuit, regulation, short circuit and open circuit tests. Three phase induction motor: Rotating magnetic field, equivalent circuit, vector diagram, torque-speed characteristics, effect of changing rotor resistance and reactance on torque-speed curves, motor torque and developed rotor power, no-load test, blocked rotor test, starting and braking and speed control. Single phase induction motor: Theory of operation, equivalent circuit and starting.

Topics Covered

Introduction to solid state devices and thyristors: (i) Schottky rectifier (ii) Zener diode (iii) Diode and transistor  packages (iv) SCR and (v) TRIAC. Introduction to triggering devices: UJT, UJT relaxation oscillator, phase control circuit; Programmable UJT (PUT), PUT relaxation oscillator; Schottky diode; Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS); DIAC; Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS); Asymmetrical AC triggering devices. Motor Control: DC Motor braking and plugging circuits, transistor dynamic braking circuit, typical motor plugging circuit, emergency stop plugging circuit,; speed control PM/Shunt motors; electronic speed control using armature voltage control method. Solid state motor speed controller: Single transistor speed control; OP-AMP and Darlington power amplifier speed control, OP-AMP and MOSFET power amplifier control for PM/Shunt motors. SCR speed control circuits for PM/Shunt motors; simple SCR circuit, SCR plus UJT circuit variation of a pulse width modulation (PWM) speed control circuit. Speed control of series / universal motors: Series / universal motor control circuit using SCR (half wave control); TRIAC and DIAC (full wave control); TRIAC control with Hysteresis compensation, DC motor phase control; balance bridge (reversing) drive for PM or shunt motors, phase control circuit for Dc series motor. DC-DC chopper control, Basic Jones Chopper circuit. Stepper motors; stepper motors drive circuit using transistors, Darlington transistor and MOSFETs. Speed control of AC motors: Variable frequency converter block diagram, simplified single phase cycloconvereter. TRIAC control, single phase inverter, three phase six step inverter. Electronic timers. Switched mode power supplies. Voltage multipliers. Magnetic Amplifiers. Resistance welder controls. Induction heating. Dielectric heating. 

Topics Covered

Industrial motor controls, DC generators. Armature reaction in synchronous  generator. Two reaction analysis and concept of direct axis and quadrature axis reactance. Transient performances of rotating machines. Fundamentals of electromechanical energy conversions, energy storage. Generalized performance equations of machines. Interconnected system of alternators and load sharing. Excitation schemes of synchronous machines, starting of synchronous machines. Starting of induction motors, torque and speed control requirements. DC and AC motor control by traditional methods and by using SCRs. Electrical braking of DC and AC motors, Eddy current brakes. Amplidyne, Metadynes, synchronous converters, static power converters. Stepper motor principle, variable reluctance stepper motor.  Electrical machine design, design factors, design principles, transformer design, design of small single phase transformers, design of single phase induction motors.

Topics Covered

DC Generation:  Principles, Construction, classification, armature winding, voltage build up, armature reactions and commutation, performance and testing.  DC Motor:  operation, types, torque-speed characteristics, and methods of speed control. Transformers: principle, construction, cooling, vector diagrams and voltage regulations, equivalent circuit, harmonics in polyphase transformers, losses and efficiency.  Induction Motor:  principles of operation, structural details, equivalent circuits, speed-torque relations, losses and efficiency, circle diagram, induction generator. Synchronous generator: general outlines; salient poles and non-salient poles, armature and field cores, cooling, air gap flux, regulation, vector diagrams, armature reaction, losses and efficiency, transient conditions, parallel operation, load sharing.  Synchronous Motor:  Theory of operation, vector diagrams, V-curves, Tests, losses, efficiency and starting.

Topics Covered

Introduction to real time system; Classification of real time process; Real time scheduling; Real time programming; Implementation; Operating systems; Real time I/O. Real Time design methodologies. Modeling for real time systems. Reliable and Safe design for critical applications. Review of Microprocessor fundamentals and programmable input/output devices and systems for PC. Application examples: digital controls, robotics, on line systems, communication with real world signals and automatic control using feedback, feed-forward and adaptive control, control algorithm implementation.

Topics Covered

Introduction to microprocessors. Intel 8086 microprocessor: Architecture, addressing modes, instruction sets, assembly language programming, system design and interrupt. Interfacing: programmable peripheral interface, programmable timer, serial communication interface, programmable interrupt controller, direct memory access, keyboard and display interface. Introduction to micro-controllers.

Topics Covered

Review of 80x86 family of microprocessors. Instructions and data access methods in a 32 bit microprocessor; Representation of operands and operators; Instruction formats; Designing Arithmetic Logic Unit; Processor design: single bus, multi-bus architecture; Control Unit Design: hardwired, micro-programmed and pipe line; VLSI implementation of a microprocessor or part of a microprocessor design.

Topics Covered

Introduction to different types of microprocessors (8 bit, 16 bit etc.)  Introduction sets. Hardware organization. Microprocessor interfacing. Introduction to available microprocessor IC's. Microprocessor applications. Design of digital computer subsystem. Flow of information and logical flow diagram in timing and control signals. System organization: Hardware structures. Design of control unit of digital computer. Introduction to micro-programming. Multiprogramming, real time and time sharing computer systems. Data and instructions. Data systems, addressing of operative memory.  Machine instructions. Channel programs. Assembler program. Program execution. Program execution. Interrupt systems, I/O systems. Interconnection of computers. Operating systems. Control program. File handler. Program structure.Virtual memory.

Topics Covered

Physical defects in VLSI Circuits. Complexity and economics of testing. Fault models: Stuck-at Stack-on, Stack-open, bridging and delay faults. Testing combinational logic circuits : terminologies path sesicization, fanout and reconvergence, fault matrix , fault collapsing . test generation using D-algorithm,  Boolean difference and other methods. Testing sequential logic circ its : problems and remedies . Testability of different types of CMOS circuits for various faults . test invalidation. Robustly testable CMOS circuits . Test generation for static and dynamic CMOS. Design for testability: different techniques of enhancing testability scan design techniques, built-in self (BIST) Built-in current sensors (BICS) for IDDQ testing of CMOS circuits. Error detecting codes and self-checking circuits. Testable design of regular array architectures and PLAS: Testable design of regular array architectures and PLAS: the concept of C-testability.

Topics Covered

Trends and issues in high performance digital VLSI design : interconnect as key limiting factor, wire modeling, clock distribution of high speed system, power distribution, crosstalk and power distribution noise. High speed circuit design techniques; Low power design issues; High density and high speed memory design; SOI technology and circuits. VLSI circuits in signal processing; VLSI circuits in wireless communication. ASIC design.

Topics Covered

VLSI si  process technology. Si crystal growth and wafer preparation . epitaxial growth on Si substrate. Oxidation of Si. Lithography, diffusion: methods and models. Ion implantation, metallization. Overview and process flow of a CMOS and a BICMOS process. VLSI si  devices. Isolation techniques. Second order effects in BJT devices: base width modulation. Emitter current crowding, kirk effect . Second order effects in MOS devices: short channel effects, narrow width effects. Device scaling rules. Device models. Compact models for bipolar devices. Ebers-Moll type model. Gummel-poon type model and their implementation in SPICE. BJT model in SPICE2. Compactmodels for MOS transistor and  their implementation in SPICE. Level 1,2 and 3 MOS model parameters in SPICE. Parameter extraction for bipolar and MOS device models. Geometry, process and temperature dependency of bipolar and MOS model parameters. Parameter optimization, statistics of parameters and statistical modeling.